Learning Disabilities - Issues with Inclusion

Inclusion means inclusion! It means affiliation, combination, comprisal, enclosure, involvement, surrounding. It means inviting parents, students and community members to be part of a new culture, a new reality. Inclusion means joining with new and exciting educational concepts (cooperative education, adult education, whole language, computer technology, critical thinking). Inclusion means inviting those who have been left out in any way to come in, and asking them to help design new systems that encourage every person to participate to the fullness of their capacity.

Issues and concerns:

1. As inclusion has evolved, the distinction between regular education and special education has become blurred. More and more regular classroom teachers have been expected to program for children with special needs. This has caused a lot of problems because many of the teachers have not been trained in special education. Even current teacher education programs do not provide a significant amount of instruction in special education.

2. Whether inclusive schooling works to provide effective academic outcomes for students with learning disabilities is a matter of conflicting research findings. General classroom placements are appropriate for most students; however concerns exist among parents professionals, and advocacy groups regarding inclusion for students with serious learning disabilities.

3. Universal acceptance of definition of learning disabilities continues to elude those who care about this special need. Nor do the many existent definitions, official and otherwise, seem to be coalescing around key points in any noticeable way.

4. Assessing the presence and extent of a learning disability in a manner that produces clear, indisputable results does not seem to be possible.

The Three Monsters...

In talking to school and human service people internationally, three themes emerge when we discuss inclusion. Inclusion means facing what we call the three monsters.

The first monster is Fear: Will I be able to do this? Since fear is the dominant emotion, it is important to note that the fright is ours, not theirs. This is about our fears. We are afraid we might fail.

The second monster is Control: If I include this child, it will mean giving up control. I can't do this all by myself; I will have to ask others to help. This means admitting that "I" don't have all the answers that "I" am not in total control. We believe it is time to give up this fantastic illusion and learn to share control. Ask for help and watch the future blossom and unfold. Inclusion helps to us to realize that sometimes we need to give up control, and allow nature to take its course.

The third monster is Change: Inclusion is the beginning of change. "I am afraid of change therefore I won't include people." There is no question that inclusion means change. But change is not optional. It is here. Our choices are limited. We can grow with change, or fight a losing battle with the past. Choosing inclusion gives us the opportunity to grow with change. Our motto is: Change is inevitable; growth is optional. We recommend growth. Despite the debate over inclusion, how far it should go, and how much it should cost, the latest developments in special education, to some observers, offer more cause to celebrate than to despair. “The good news is that huge strides have been made to improve the plight of special-needs students.”The question now being asked,' says Judith Heumann, U.S. Assistant Secretary of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, is “how we can do it, as opposed to should we do it.”

Winser, M. (2008). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms (8th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 167.

Bennett, S., Dworet, D., Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.).St. Davids, Canada: Highland Press, pp.102-103.

Cromwell, Sharon. "Inclusion of All Children." Education World (2004)

Forest, Marsha. "Inclusion! The Bigger Picture." Inclusion Press (2006):

Intellectual Disabilities

Intellectual Disability is neither an illness nor a disease. Essentially, the term refers to delayed intellectual growth that is manifested in immature reactions to environmental stimuli and below-average social and academic performance. However, individuals who are described as intellectually disabled vary widely in almost every aspect of human behaviour, personality, and temperament. Students who are intellectually disabled have difficulties with complex academic material; that are markedly slower than their age-mates in reasoning, making judgements, using memory effectively, and any attempts to take into account the incident rate of a relatively common disorder almost invariably fails to take into account some affected individuals. This occurs in the case of intellectual disabilities, where mild conditions prove elusive and are difficult to accurately pinpoint. Many mild cases go unreported, although this is not true in the case of significant intellectual impairments. Different IQ cut-off points are used, different methods of gathering data for prevalence studies are used, different definitions of adaptive behaviour are used, different regions and social classes show different prevalence rates. There are also gender differences within prevalence estimates. Somewhere between 5 and 10 times as many boys than girls are considered to be mildly intellectually disabled. Mild intellectual disability is a particular controversial since children in this category tend to be almost exclusively from poor families often of minority origin. Different age groups also show different prevalence figures. 
There are many other labels in use for children who are considered intellectually disabled. These include developmentally challenged, developmentally disabled, and developmentally delayed. Labels that include the word “developmental” may contribute to the stereotype and false belief that a person with an intellectual disability will never grow up. An intellectual disability does not stop a person from developing, even if the pace, process and outcome of their development may not be considered as “normal” to some. They are unique human beings, growing and changing every day.

Definition of Intellectual Disability: It is not a disease you can catch from anyone and it is not a type of mental illness like depression. There is no ‘cure’ for intellectual disabilities, however most children can find tools and strategies to help them learn; it just may take more time and effort. Disorders such as Downs Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder are intellectual disabilities.

     The AAMR (American Association on Mental Retardation) definition was adopted in 1959 and uses the term mental retardation. Its definition is "mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in personal functioning. It is characterized by significant sub average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skills: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-discretion, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work."


     There are other definitions that prescribe cut-off points to different IQ levels, or suggest that the developmental period ends at a later or earlier age. Despite the differences between various definitions, most of them share three critical points: sub average intellectual functioning, deficits in adaptive behaviour, and manifestation during the developmental period. Sub average general functioning has differed in the IQ score needed to qualify, today it is an IQ score of below 70. At risk, borderline, or slow learners fall between 70-85.  

(Nichy.org)

     Prevelance: Intellectual disabilities are the most common developmental disability: Approximately 6.5 million people in the U.S. alone have some sort of intellectual disability. More than 545,000 between the ages of six and twelve have some level of intellectual disability and receive special education. 1 in every 10 children who need special education has some form of intellectual disability. Approximately 2% of Canadians have been given a diagnosis of intellectual disability. Of these, about 90% have “mild” disabilities. However, labels like “mild” say nothing about the type or intensity of support an individual might require, just as non-disabled individuals in the community have widely varying needs.

           

        An intellectual disability may be congenital (the individual is born with it) or it may be acquired, through accident or disease. Some people associate intellectual disability with specific causation (such as Autism or Down Syndrome,) but in about 50% of cases, the case in unknown and is often described as a “generalized intellectual disability”.
 

     Etiology: Only about half of the cases have a known cause. The most common clinical cause of intellectual disability is Down's Syndrome. The 21st chromosome in these individuals can have disjunction (3 instead of 2), translocation (only part is in triplicate), or mosaicism (faulty distribution of chromosomes in later cell divisions). There is also a fragile X syndrome. Its inheritance pattern is unique. When a male is the carrier, it will be passed only to his daughters. When a female is the carrier, there is a 50% chance of passing it on.
Genetic defects include Williams Syndrome (caused by a deleted chromosome 7, characterised by cardiovascular abnormalities, short stature, and developmental delays), Prader-Willi Syndrome (irregularity with chromosome 15, characterised by obesity, small stature, hands, and feet, mild intellectual disability, learning disabilities, and language disorders),and Angleman Syndrome (deletion of chromosome 15, characterised by severe mental retardation, seizures, ataxia (problems with gait and ambulation), microcephaly, particular facial appearance, and a fascination with water). Infections and intoxicants included rubella, syphilis, paediatric AIDS, and FASD are all instances where a disability can form after birth. In terms of Environmental influences, subtle genetic factors may interweave with socio-economic deprivation to further affect a child's development. Psychosocial disadvantage, poverty, inadequate nutrition, family instability, lack of educational opportunity, or an infant environment that is not stimulating are all referred to as cultural-familial mental retardation.  

Winzer, Margret. "Section 2, Chapter 6." Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. 176, 178, 185, 186. Print.

Speech and Language: Issues Related to Inclusion

Speech and Language: Issues Related to Inclusion

The benefits of an inclusive environment are many.  For example, both exceptional and normal developing children are less likely to stigmatize.  They also have great opportunities to profit through relationships with age appropriate peers.  There are also many challenges associated with an inclusive classroom.  For instance, inclusion challenges the classroom teacher to find appropriate teaching techniques for the child/children with exceptionalities.   This teacher may have little or no special education training, but are still expected to teach the child who may have very different learning needs than the majority of the other students.

In particular, students with speech and language disorders require structured and systematic intervention. Many school boards either employ or retain the services of speech and language specialists. A special education teacher or educational assistant, under the direction of these specialists, may be used to work with the students. By understanding the student’s communication reasons and methods, the teacher can incorporate purposeful communication throughout the school day.

There are various classroom strategies that teachers may use to aid students with Speech and Language disorders.  Some examples include:

For Listening:

Ø  Allow students to ask for clarification and be willing to repeat instructions

Ø  Avoid long periods of instruction where listening only is required

Ø  Gain attention before speaking (eye contact, tap on the shoulder)

Ø  Be aware of delivery style – decrease rate of speech – use repetition, simple explanations and short sentences

Ø  Use many types of expression other than oral i.e. Use visual supports

Ø  Check for comprehension by asking the student to repeat what has been said

Ø  Paraphrase your own ideas after speaking to ensure comprehension

Ø  Be conscious of noise levels and where possible, improve classroom acoustics

Ø  Offer preferential seating, away from pencil sharpeners, open windows, doorways

For Speech:

Ø  Restate a student’s phrases in a more grammatically correct way

Ø  Structure the physical environment to increase opportunities for interaction

Ø  Be sensitive to the student’s current level of language

Ø  Provide opportunities for interactive games and activities

Ø  Create situations that promote the use of oral language

Ø  Avoid placing undo pressure on a student to use language

Ø  Introduce new words in a variety of contexts and use repetition

Ø  Be careful of overcorrecting the student’s language, doing so may discourage the student from speaking

Ø  Encourage discussion about things that the student is interested in

Through the use of appropriate strategies, inclusion for the students with speech and language disorders can be a positive and successful experience.

Bennett, S., Dworet, D. & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.).  St.

        Davids, Canada:  Highland Press, pp. 218-219.

Winzer, M. (2008).  Children With Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms (8th ed.).  Toronto,

       Canada:  Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 120-127.

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are highly complex and as unique as the individual. At one point, learning disabilities were determined to be caused by dyspedagogia (inefficient teaching), but this is not the reason (although it can lead to negative consequences). Learning disabilities endure throughout an individual's life; adults simply manage the issue better. They are a real issue that cross cultures and languages, and they are the highest percentage of all exceptionalities. Learning disabilities are "loosely described as a difficulty in dealing with information, particularly language based information, despite apparent freedom from an intellectual or sensory handicap or cultural difference" (p90). Symptoms of one learning disability are not consistent to all learning disabilities. In addition, unlike many exceptional students, learning disabled students difficulties are not able to be measured numerically like an amount of auditory or vision loss.

The term learning disabilities was first used by Samuel Kirk in 1963 to describe students of normal intelligence with learning problems. It has been most difficult for professionals to come up with a definition for learning disabilities that they can agree on, to this date they have not come up with a common definition.

Definitions

Learning Disability: is a syndrome of behaviours that manifests differently in different individuals although the components of the syndrome itself are varied and confused. The common components of learning disabilities are difficulties in listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, mathematical abilities, problems in self-regulatory behaviours, social perception, and social interaction. Some examples of learning disabilities are agnosia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, and dyslexia.

Agnosia: the lack of knowledge or an inability to recognize the significance of sensory stimuli.

Dysgraphia: unable to express thoughts in writing.

Dyscalculia: difficulty with math.

Dyslexia: difficulty reading (first used in 1877 to decribe difficulty extracting meaning from print). There are quite a few successful people who are suspected to have dyslexia such as Hans Christian Anderson, Winston Churchill, George Patton, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Cher, and Tom Cruise to name a few; by no means should a learning disability hold anybody back from being successful.

Prevalence: the total number of existing cases, old and new.

Etiology: the process of finding causes to explain how a particular problem came into existence.

For further definitions of learning disabilities visit http//www.helpguide.org/mental/learning_disabilities.htm.

Characteristics of Learning Disabilities include
- Memory retrieval, typically with new information, a new technique, a memory sequence, or a formula. The item may be learned efficiently on the first day but lost on the next.
- Difficulties processing language during the sending, receiving or integration process. The severity of variation of this element can vary dramatically.
- Communication misunderstandings or misinterpretations, much as this is common with all children the frequency is higher and often consistent with learning disabled.
- Disorganization, including mixing up steps in a sequence or having poor understanding of time.
- Variance in the severity of the issues. It is never consistent and often changing day to day and can be inconsistent with other skills.

Prevalence

Since 1963 when the term was first coined the number of students classed as learning disabled has been astronomical. In Canada, students with learning disabilities account for 48 percent (table 1-2 on pg17) of the special education population. In Ontario, children with learning disabilities make up approximately half of the students identified as exceptional. Definitional problems and misdiagnosis of children cause inflated numbers of children class as learning disabled, as well as lack of standardization and the misinterpretation of the discrepancy are blamed for the high rates of learning disabled children. Boys outnumber girls with learning disabilities, with a ratio of at least 4 to 1. Some of the reasons could be due to boys being more aggressive, assertive, and dominant in school settings than girls, as well as the fact that boys have problems in language and reading more often than girls do.

Etiology

Experts do no agree on the causes of learning disabilities suggesting they may be the result of physiological factors, others suggest it is due to expectations beyond their means, and still others blame environmental factors (such as inadequate nutrition, inappropriate diet, or allergies). Suspected causes interact in subtle ways, rendering etiology even more difficult to determine.

Bennett, S., Dworet, D., Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools ( 6th ed.).
St. Davids, Canada: Highland Press, pp. 90-97.

Winser, M. (2008). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms (8th ed.).
Toronto, Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 17, 90, 128-168, 567, 570.

Speech & Language: Definitions, Prevalence, Etiology

Communication is an essential way individuals exchange information.  Language and speech are two very important and essentially human ways of communicating.

Definitions

Language:  symbols organized into patterns to communicate meaning

Speech:  mechanical production of language

Speech Disorder:  difficulty with the oral production of language.  Some examples include articulation disorders (phonological difficulties), fluency disorder (dysfluency), voice disorders and apraxia

Language Disorder:  problems receiving information and/or formulating an acceptable and adequate response.  Some examples include mutism, aphonia, aphasia, and expressive/receptive disorders.

Prevalence

The prevalence of speech and language problems are difficult to determine because the criteria and definitions of communication disorders vary among researchers.  The best current estimates of combined speech and language impairments are 7 to 10 percent of children, although prevalence does vary by age, with many disorders disappearing with age and maturity.

Speech Disorders:  Most common in boys, they affect about 10%-15% of preschool children and 6% in elementary and secondary levels.  The most common speech disorder is articulation, which accounts for 75% of all disorders.

Language Disorders:  Also most common in boys, they affect 2%-3% of preschoolers and 1% of the school aged population.

Etiology

Speech Disorders:  often a result of physical problems in a child's larynx, tongue, teeth, palate, lips and resonating cavities.  Often developmental, can also be a result of disease or injury.

Language Disorders:  accidental brain damage, diseases (encephalitis), medical conditions, lack of early socialization.

By learning how and why Speech and Language Disorders occur and happen, different therapies, treatments, resources and teaching methods can be used to help these children become effective communicators.


Bennett, S., Dworet, D. & Weber, K. (2008). Special Education in Ontario Schools (6th ed.).  St.

        Davids, Canada:  Highland Press, pp. 214-219.

Winzer, M. (2008).  Children With Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms (8th ed.).  Toronto,

       Canada:  Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 96-127.

Risk Factors and Children at Risk

What puts a child "at risk" for having a learning problem? 

A negative social environment can create a great deal of stress that decreases a child's ability to learn.  Examples of environmental risk factors include:  poverty, dysfunctional families, cultural and linguistic differences. 

Medical or biological issues can also cause a child to be "at risk" for developing learning problems.    Biological risk factors can include:  infections, exposure to toxins, poor maternal nutrition, premature birth and low birth weight.  Genetic disorders and chromosomal disorders are causes of  "established risk". 

Teachers who understand the psychological, social and educational factors related to a disability, and have information about biomedical causes and developmental consequences of a condition are more effective educators. Teachers who understand the causes of exceptionalies are more:  tolerant; appreciative of the child's disability and confident in their educational planning.  Teachers who have more knowledge, are better able to positively affect the education outcome of a child with an exceptionality. 

Winzer, M (2008) Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms. (8th edition).  Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall.  pp 68-84